crowcity

This was originally written to provide a factual element to a novel I was writing. The images were created by Peter Rollings.

The crow family is thought to consist of the most highly evolved of birds, since they are remarkably adaptable to changes in their environment. It is no surprise, then, that this is a global family, with members as diverse as the shadowy folkloric raven, the artistic bower bird, and even the birds of paradise. It is likely that the crows originated in Asia, possibly evolving from a jay-like ancestor.

Britain is home to four genera of crow - namely Corvus, which includes the raven, the carrion and hooded crows, the rook and the jackdaw; Pyrrhocorax, our representative being the red-billed chough; Pica, the magpie; and Garrulus, the jay.

The earliest remains of crows found in Britain were in Norfolk and Suffolk, dating from the warm Cromerian interglacial period of 500,000-600,000 years ago, when they would have lived alongside mastodons, extinct kinds of horse, cave lions and forest rhinoceros. In the Middle to Upper Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago, there is evidence that choughs lived in Devon and the Gower Peninsula in South Wales, and that magpies then lived in County Clare, later becoming extinct in Ireland and recolonizing much more recently. Remains of jays found in Yorkshire suggest that they were taken as food by Middle Stone Age hunters. Carrion crow remains have been discovered at the sites of the Glastonbury lake village of about 250 BC, although it is unclear whether their function there was as food, pet or oracle.

The carrion eating species of crow, particularly the raven, rook, the carrion crow, hooded crow and the magpie, developed in the Middle Ages a sinister reputation - if indeed they did not already have one - by feasting on the bodies left on the battleground, and for being no strangers to the fruits of the gallows.

The crow in its various forms had been an important character in myth and folklore during Celtic times. Morrigan, the triple goddess of War, Fate and Death, was possessed of the three aspects of Nemain (Frenzy), Badb Catha (Battle Raven) and Macha (Crow). As a shapeshifter she could turn at will into a raven, hooded or carrion crow. In this guise she would often watch over the battlefield, from which vantage point she might alter the course of the battle with her magic, encouraging warriors to warp into battle frenzy.

The Celts kept a number of crows as sacred birds, to whom they would present the impaled heads of slaughtered enemies to feed upon. Morrigan was a mediator between the land of the living and that of the dead. In order to complete the circle of life she held the secret of regenerative ecstasy, picking clean the bones of the dead in her crow form to prepare them for rebirth. This is perhaps why it is held that King Arthur became a raven (sometimes a chough) after his death, allowing him to remain neither dead nor alive, but with the ability to be either.

The great Norse god Odin was also associated with the raven; he had two of them, Hugin and Munin (Thought and Memory), who perched on his shoulders when they were not flying far and wide, gathering information for him.

The number of legends that involve the once white crow being turned black may well be symbolic of the suppression of paganism by civilising Christianity, the mother religions being superseded by those of the new father god. A Tyrolean legend has the child Jesus beside a stream where some ravens were bathing. They ignore him when he asks to be allowed to drink and continue with their splashing. “Ungrateful birds,” says Jesus. “Proud you may be of your beauty, but your feathers now so snowy white shall become black and remain so until Judgement Day.”

The birds certainly appear black to us, yet their vision is finer than ours and they see the ultra violet of the spectrum. To each other they shine and glisten in their generally blue, green and purple iridescent sheen.

Carrion and Hooded Crow

The carrion and hooded crows are likely to have evolved from the same fairly recent ancestor but in isolation from each other during an Ice Age, later stretching into the newly accessible country, eventually sharing lands. They are of the same size and can interbreed, resulting in birds of mixed plumage.

The carrion crow is black with a bluey purple or blue gloss, the gloss greener on the wings and tail. The bill, legs and claws are all black and their eyes are a dark brown. The hooded crow is black but with a pale ash grey hood or cloak on the back of the neck, mantle, scapulars, back, rump, lower breast, abdomen, flanks, axillaries and under tail coverts. Both crows are found in Britain, the carrion crow seeming fonder of upland areas than the hooded crow.

The hooded crow is unlikely to be confused with other crows close up because of its grey markings, but both crows are easily distinguished from the rook by their calls, their squarer tails, broader wings and slower wingbeat. The crow bill is heavier. When perched the crows will frequently flick up their closed wings, which rooks and ravens but rarely do.

British crows do not migrate. They are not so adversely affected by the winter cold since they can feed upon the bodies of those who have fallen to its touch. They do prefer country where trees abound and will nest in denser woods than will the rook. The crow doesn’t favour bare mountainous land or treeless desert the way the raven does but is an adaptable creature and will nest on the ground if necessary, notably in the Shetlands. They will also nest in electricity pylons in country where there are no suitable trees.

Crows cannot breed without their own territory. This causes unmated crows to help with the raising of young of another pair, often the new brood of their own parents. All members of a brood will stay with their parents for the same amount of time, at the end of which they will away to join the flock. During the mating season the breeding birds are at threat from other crows with an eye on their territory, who will attempt to eat eggs, kill young and generally chase the pair from the territory. During these altercations the male crows always fight with other male crows and the females similarly with birds of their own gender.

Outside of the mating season, communal roostings are tolerated within a territory. The birds will gather at pre roost assemblies before leaving for the roost, which is often shared with other members of the crow family, the different species tending to have their own part of the roost, most normally a thickly leaved tree.

Holyoak (1968) examined the gizzards of 234 carrion crows from an agricultural area in South England. He found the following foodstuffs to be favoured:

Vegetable
grain, cherries, plums, wild plant seeds, potatoes, acorns, apples and pears, beechnuts, walnuts

Animal
live small mammals, carrion, earthworms, grassland and woodland insects, live adult birds, nestling birds, birds’ eggs, fish carrion, molluscs, littoral invertebrates, spiders, woodlice, centipedes, ticks, bread, animal food stuffs

When feeding on the ground, female crows tend to turn clods with their feet whilst male crows prefer to probe with their bills. When dropping shellfish to crack their shells, crows have been observed to always do so on to hard ground, unlike gulls, who will sometimes drop on to soft ground by accident. Crows will take live fish out of running water and pick off dead ones from the surface.

Dr Houston sought to ascertain the effect of crows on hill sheep farming. He found that almost all the couped ewes (if the fleece is too heavy, the sheep cannot right itself if it has fallen on its back) who were attacked by crows were already dead due to their prone position before the shepherd came along, raising the possibility that the crows had simply been taking carrion. His studies also revealed that only one lamb in seventeen hundred is killed by crows. So although the collective noun for a group of crows is a murder, this upon investigation would appear to be unfair to the birds’ nature and habits.

The main predator of crows - except for other crows during breeding - is man. Birds of prey will occasionally take a crow but risk mobbing if they do so by other crows.

Rook

The rook is only likely to be confused with the carrion crow, yet the rook’s bill is more slender and the adult rook has a bare pale grey face. The rook’s wing beats are also slightly faster through the sky. The rook is black with blue and purple iridescence, becoming greener on the wings and tail. The beak, legs and feet are black and the eye is a dark brown.

Rooks are very colonial birds and therefore have but a small amount of tree around their nest to call their own. The male is most aggressive during the nest building period, most probably due to their testes producing more male hormone at this time. Once they have mated the amount of male hormone produced will begin to drop away, a refractory period lasting from June to August. Some rooks mate for several years, possibly life if they both survive, often using the same nest year after year. Once the young have left the nest they may wander long distances from their natal rookery, possibly returning once they have paired. The male will find a high and solitary spot during the autumn and winter and sing. If a female comes and accepts food from him the pair has been formed.

Rookeries are rarely found in woodland, the birds preferring a measure of open country. Most nests are in deciduous trees, although evergreens are favoured where protection from frequent and virulent gales is a concern. Electricity pylons will sometimes be chosen. The female is able to build the whole nest herself but is normally helped by the male with the outer layer of twigs. She will fetch and shape the majority of the lining, with leaves, grass and earth followed by paper, fur and feathers.

Outside of the breeding season, and especially where there are large numbers of wintering migrators, the communal roost is very important in making the most of available food supplies, as birds who have fed poorly can try their luck the following day with ones who have had more success. It also offers protection from predators and from the cold. Both the roost and the rookery are used as meeting places throughout the day, where birds will congregate before leaving on another feeding trip. Birds from different rookeries will feed together, there being no feeding territory associated with individual rookeries.

Rooks are the keenest probers of the crows and consequently earthworms and leatherjackets are very important to their diet. They also enjoy pecking at scuttling or flying insects. When the flock is feeding, the birds will take it in turns to stand sentry, allowing the other birds to feed far more efficiently. Grain is popular, preferred before it has started to sprout. Their habits are closely tied with agriculture and the changing seasons since they are primarily rural birds. Most studies on rooks has been to establish whether they are a danger or a help to arable farming. This is always a difficult question to answer, since there are so many variable factors, the pendulum swinging from one moment to another, but there can be no doubt that they are extremely valuable in their control of weevils and larvae. Cannibalism is much rarer in rooks than in the carrion crow.

Albinism occurs in rooks as in other crows, affecting even their beaks and legs. Shooting does not control the rook population since other rooks will join the flock if there are sufficient food sources, and all crows will continue to feed even where their dead fellows have been strung up.

Jackdaw

Jackdaws are recognised by being slightly smaller than the crow, and by the grey plumage of the back of the head, nape and sides of the neck; the rest of the bird is black, mostly with a bluish tinge. It is found right across the British Isles. There is some little migration, and also evidence of movement from Britain to both the Netherlands and to Ireland. The jackdaw is probably the most active crow traveller.

Jackdaws are always beaten in fights with crows and rooks, and so their arguments tend to be amongst themselves. If the jackdaw wishes to make a friend it will swoop over them, wagging its tail as it does so.

The jackdaw is markedly colonial, often nesting very close together. The male builds the stick structure to the nest and the female is responsible for the lining, which tends to consist of fibres, bark strips, dead leaves, moss, paper, sometimes with a base of clods of earth, and with a final cup of fur, hair and feathers. The nests can be built in dense foliage branches of trees, but jackdaws do prefer to build them in holes, whether in trees, cliffs, chimneys or ruined buildings. When not raising young, the jackdaw roosts will contain both resident and migrant birds and also carrion crows, ravens and, especially, rooks, although the different crow species will generally inhabit different parts of the tree or building.

Jackdaws are surface feeders and do not dig for worms in the way that rooks do. They like grassland insects, grain and wild plant seeds and larvae, although their eating habits are very adaptable to what is available, taking animal feed stuffs, carrion and other birds’ eggs also, and will also take ticks from sheep and cattle. They are happy scavengers, and enjoy hawking for flying ants. They are less inclined to store food than are other crows.

Magpie

Living at the turn of the twenty-first century, we pride ourselves on being a modern mechanised culture, far removed in knowledge and sensibility from our Medieval forbears. Yet how many of us, upon espying a single magpie, seek the sight of a second bird, hoping to draw upon ourselves the associated joy in place of sorrow?

I cross the magpie
The magpie crosses me
Bad luck to the magpie
And good luck to me

And the magpie is unmistakable with its black and white colour; wings and tail that flutter in the wind; its singular chattering call. It is found throughout Britain (with the exception of northwest Scotland), having colonized Ireland only in the seventeenth century.

The afforestation of Scotland suits the magpie, since it can live happily in conifer plantations, yet favouring clumps of shrubs or single trees in rural areas. The magpie also finds nesting sites on the steep slopes above sea cliffs. The birds mostly prefer to live locally to their birthplace.

Magpies probably form pairs at the spring gathering. The nests are solitary rather than collected in colonies, although they will roost communally outside of the breeding season. They feed on the ground far more so than do jays, eating a wide range of invertebrates, grain, fruit, acorns, chestnuts, small mammals and small birds and their eggs. They also store food, but are less dependent on their stores than the jay.

Jay

The jay is found throughout the British Isles with the exceptions of the west coast of Ireland, the north of Scotland and the Isle of Man. It is recognised by its speckled head, pinkish brown body, black white and blue wings, white throat and underparts and black tail. Its beak is grey and its eyes blue. It is the most arboreal of the crows, having specialised in flying short distances from tree to tree, with a fairly long tail and short round wings. It is less suited to flying across open spaces. When on the ground it prefers to hop about. It utters variously a loud screech, a quieter mew and a chirrup; also a crowlike kraah at the spring gatherings. Jays can mimic other birds, often sounding danger with the alarm calls of the blackbird or magpie.

The jay favours territory untouched by humankind, inhabiting old woods and forest wherever there are oak trees. Indeed, their love of acorns is likely to have contributed greatly to the spread of the oak across Britain, in the wake of retreating glaciers. Schuster in 1950 calculated that 65 jays would plant 200,000 acorns in the harvest month. The jay will continue to feed on these acorns until the following year’s harvest, remembering well where they have planted them, pulling up the new seedlings also, but leaving these once they are a year old.

Jays can travel large distances but rarely do, preferring to stay close to their birthplace. The gradual reforestation of Scotland is aiding the increase of their numbers, but they are slow to move to these new sites. Young jays roost in close contact with each other, but as they become more adult they prefer a certain distance of solitude at the roost. They gather and plant their acorns communally, and join together in mobbing predators, particularly during the nesting season.

Chough

The red billed chough is set apart from the other British crows by its red bill and legs. The rest of the bird is black with a bluish gloss, tending more towards green on the wings and tail. Its eye is dark brown. At a distance it is most easily confused with jackdaws, rooks and carrion crows. It is larger than the jackdaw though, and its wings are proportionately noticeably longer, with more separated primary feathers. They are astonishingly accomplished and graceful fliers.

The chough’s distribution is thin and scattered. They can be found in some of the Scottish islands, the north, west and south coasts of Ireland, some areas of North Wales and Pembrokeshire, but is now sadly gone from England. In a new initiative they are now being reintroduced to Cornwall. They are currently living in giant open aviary halfway houses along the coast, and are being encouraged to repopulate the coast. There is more understanding now about the conditions they favour - closely cropped grass peppered with piles of dung - and there is every reason to hope that the repopulation will be successful. Their numbers have been diminishing for quite some time, and they are now strictly coastal birds.

Choughs are seen in pairs in all seasons and it seems that many choughs may pair for life. They have been recorded building their nests in quarries, mines, sea caves and cliffs . They will feed and play in flocks outside of the mating season if their numbers are sufficient to do so.

The chough’s slender beak causes their feeding habits to be slightly different from those of the other crows. They probe the ground and kick over clods and stones to reach the insects underneath. In the sand they will sometimes dig deep holes in their foraging. Ants are important to their diet and they will probe down into their nests for ants and larvae. They also store food, hiding it in rock crevices or burying it.

The most dangerous predator for the chough is of course man, who is much more of a threat to their way of life than the peregrine falcon, their main avian predator. Choughs have been taken from Ireland with the intention of recolonising Cornwall, but these attempts have yet to meet with success.

Raven

The raven is by far the largest of the British crows, with a four foot wing span. In the air it can be distinguished from the other crows by its longer wings in relation to its body and its longer and more rounded tail. It has a honking call unique to itself, although it will also caw and chatter. The plumage is of course black, with a blue, purple and greenish iridescent sheen. The beak and legs are also black and the eye is a deep brown.

The beak is curved at the base and is extremely strong, capable of killing a rat or hedgehog with a single strike. The raven is renowned for its uncanny ability to find well concealed carrion, often being followed upon its travels by eagles and buzzards, who will then attempt to chase it from its quarry. A raven will also eat grubs, insects, berries, fruit, grain, frogs, moles, rabbits and shellfish. Although he will stop at nothing in the hunt of a favourite titbit - even creeping along puffins’ burrows for an egg - he will not take from his close neighbours.

Ravens were once, not so long ago, common throughout Britain, with a raven tree in every village, but they have been cruelly hunted and are now mostly confined to Scotland and the Scottish islands, the Lake District and part of the Northern Pennines, Wales, Devon and Cornwall. In Ireland they are more evenly if still quite thinly spread, the birds there favouring the coastal areas.

There are many tales from antiquity to the present day about the wisdom and cunning of the raven. The raven who wished for a drink when the water was too low in the tank is an example; he collected stones from nearby and dropped them into the tank, thus heightening the level of the water. And it was not the dove but the raven whom Noah first sent forth from the ark to spy for land. The raven did not return, however, since it was too busy feeding on the floating corpses of the drowned.

The Vikings were aided in their discovery of new lands by the raven. They would loose a bird when lost within foreign seas, and should the raven choose not to return to the ship but to fly for some new horizon then the pilot would mark and follow its path. It is said that in this way the Norseman Flokki discovered Iceland, and it is likely that Greenland and Nova Scotia were happened upon in a similar way.

The Vikings in fact carried a raven banner, woven to a strict magical edict, into battle with them. When the wind blew the bird’s wings wide it was considered an excellent omen and aided the warriors perhaps into a berserker’s killing frenzy. Members of the crow family were also used as messengers during battle and war. Conversely, when a desperate Alfred the Great succeeded in capturing the Danes’ raven standard his fortunes turned and England was reclaimed.

William the Conqueror, descendant of the Vikings, is portrayed on the Bayeux tapestry entering into battle at Senlac behind the raven standard. Ravens have stood guard at the Tower of London since 1078. Charles II was warned that if there were no ravens in the Tower, the White Tower would fall and the British Empire would collapse, since which time it has been the custom to clip a wing of each raven. These birds do not breed, but are taken as fledglings from various parts of Britain.

The legend of the Raven Stone is typical of the wealth of superstition and awe surrounding the raven. It was believed that when a young raven died, a parent would away to seek a magic stone, discernible only to one with the degree of magical knowledge which these birds possess. The stone would be returned to the nest and forced into the beak of the dead young bird to protect him between incarnations and to ensure that his next life would be as a raven. For these stones ravens were cruelly hunted and young even killed in order to send a parent on the quest.

The raven has inspired much verse, albeit mostly as a dark ominous figure. Spenser in his Faerie Queene writes:

After him…night ravens flew,
The hateful messengers of heavy things,
Of death and dolor telling sad tidings.

Marlowe in The Jew of Malta:

Like the sick presaging raven that tolls
The sick man’s passport in her hollow beak,
And, in the shadow of the silent night,
Does shake contagion from her sable wing.

Shakespeare has more reference to the raven than to any other bird, for example in Othello:

O’ it comes o’er my memory,
As doth the raven o’er the infected house,
Boding to all.

The raven indeed holds a unique position in history and literature, being equally associated with the darkness and the light. Long after St Hugh’s death in 1365 his jewelled hand was stolen away by thieves, who stripped it bare of its gems and threw it into a field. A raven is said to have guarded it and croaked attention toward its location, causing the relic to be returned to its holy resting place. The thieves, upon hearing of the strangeness of the discovery, feared for their souls and gave themselves up and were hanged in Lincoln. I cannot help but wonder if their dangling corpses were not fed upon by the self same bird.